Truth:
Awareness Of
Faulty Thinking
On the quest for truth, be aware of the following 50+ logical errors/fallacies.
If you lack awareness, it is easy to be confused and mislead into reaching false
conclusions.
At the bottom of this alphabetical list are:
(a) 4 common categories within
which the fallacies
can be grouped;
(b) a list of references; and
(c) a table of other web pages
dealing with fallacies.
Abusive Personal Attack: shifting attention away from facts by personally attacking the individual
presenting the argument (IR-h1)
Ambiguity/Unclear Meaning: structuring the wording of a claim to create two or more possible meanings
(UR-d1)
Analogy, Faulty: a comparison which is alike in some respects doesn't mean it is similar in
other or all important respects (UR-e7)
Authority (Questionable/Irrelevant): using the opinion of an authority who may be unqualified in current field or
biased (IP-a4)
Before Therefore Cause/ Post Hoc: assuming that if one event comes before another it is the cause of the second (IG-f6)
Black & White/Either-Or/False Dilemma: overlooking other answers by restricting choices (contraries as
contradictions) (UR-e6)
Change Meaning of Word (Equivocation): shifting the meaning of a key word in an argument resulting in deception (UR-d4)
Circular Argument/True By Definition: using the conclusion as one of the premises (reassert conclusion without
evidence) (UR-c1)
Cliché/Aphorism: covering for lack of evidence with cute phrase, parable, or story
(IG-g4)
Composition (Parts to Whole): if each part has a quality the whole must have the same property (good
players = good team) (UR-e1)
Compromise/Moderation/Golden Mean: assuming a moderate view is best because it is the middle or least offensive
view (UR-e4)
Confusing Necessary & Sufficient Condition: meeting a necessary condition but not meeting all sufficient ones
(IG-f2)
Distinction without Difference: attempting to distinguish from a similar losing argument with clever wording
(UR-d3)
Diversion (Whole to Parts): if a whole has a property or quality then each part must also have it (good
team = good player) (UR-e3)
Domino Effect/Slippery Slope: arguing against by linking a first decision with possible unproved negative
future outcomes (IG-f3)
Double Standard/ Special Pleading: rule applies to you but it doesn't apply to me because of a poorly supported
exception (IG-g7)
Evidence, Denying: refusing to seriously consider or acknowledge evidence which is opposition to
claim (IR-i1)
Evidence, Ignoring / (1 Sided Assessment): ignoring negative evidence or omitting it as though it was not relevant
(IR-i2)
Evidence, Omission: failing to include critical positive evidence which supports the claim being
made (IG-g6)
Fake Precision/Unknowable Statistic: presenting mathematical precision or essentially unknowable statistics as
fact (IG-g3)
False Hypothesis/Predict "if": stating as fact hypothetical claims about what would happen under different
conditions (IG-g2)
False Opposites /Illicit Contrast (not P -> not Q): assuming an unstated related contrasting claim
(UR-e10)
Flattery/Excessive Praise: providing praise or flattery instead of evidence
(IP-b7)
Force/Threat/Intimidation: using intimidation or threat instead of presenting evidence or proper
argument (IP-b1)
Gambler's Fallacy/False Probability: thinking past independent chance events effect the odds or probability of
future events (IG-f4)
Generalization (Sweeping)/General Principle Misuse: assume no exceptions to general rule or use exception to disprove rule
(UR-e9)
Guilt By Association: using a negative view of the company kept by an opponent instead of
presenting evidence (IP-b5)
Humor/Ridicule: avoiding appropriate arguments by distracting with humor or attacking with
ridicule (IR-j3)
Ignorance, Arguing From: stating a conclusion as true because it hasn't been proven false (or false
because not proven true) (IG-g1)
Innuendo/Suggestion without Evidence: implicitly suggesting a claim without actually stating it (to discredit an
argument) (UR-d2)
Is-Ought/Status Quo/Inertia: if it is done now, then it should continue or the reverse (if not done then
don't start) (UR-e8)
Label, Inference from: using a label attached to a person or thing as a though it were a sufficient
reason to reach a conclusion (IG-g5)
Leading Question: phrasing a question unfairly or in a biased manner to force desired answer
(UR-c2)
Loaded-Complex Question: presenting assumptions/premises in a question which force acceptance
regardless of the answer (UR-c3)
Neglect Multiple Cause /Common Cause: thinking one event causes another when both are actually effects of a
separate cause (IG-f5)
Novelty/New Is Good: it is good just because it is different from the past
(UR-e5)
Out Of Context/Improper Accent: shifting tone of voice to alter meaning of a quote or presenting it out of
context (UR-d5)
Oversimplification: using insufficient factors to account for an event
(IG-f1)
Past context Applied Now/Genetic: using evaluation from past context and applying it to present changed context
(IP-a3)
Pity/Mercy: appealing for special treatment based on sympathy as a distraction from
relevant evidence (IP-b3)
Poisoning The Well/Damning Source: attacking motives to discredit possible future points (suggesting
lying/hidden agenda) (IR-h2)
Popular Opinion/Bandwagon/Polls/Everyone Does It: urging acceptance or rejection of an argument because many others do
(IP-a1)
Rationalize/Believe Then Prove: (IP-a5)
...hiding real reasons for a position with better sounding false/weak ones
Red Herring/Side Issue: attempting to divert attention from a weakness by presenting a distracting
side issue (IR-j2)
Sample, Insufficient: reaching a conclusion about the whole population based on a sample that is
too small (IG-g8)
Sample, Unrepresentative: using biased, exceptional, or an unrepresentative sample of a population to
represent the whole (IG-g9)
Self Interest/Personal Circumstance: appealing to an opponent's personal interest or circumstance instead of a
valid argument (IP-b2)
Small Difference Irrelevant/Continuum: thinking a small change in a sequence doesn't matter so there is no true cut
off point (UR-e2)
Straw Man: distorting or misrepresenting an opponent's argument in order to make it
easier to refute or attack (IR-j1)
Strong Feelings/Mob-Crowd Appeal: appealing to mass enthusiasm or popular opinion with no supporting evidence
(IP-b6)
Tradition/Past is Best: appealing to reverence or respect for tradition to avoid presenting evidence (IP-b4)
Trivial Objection/Minor Point: attacking a minor point as though it was a major one (believing this defeats
whole argument) (IR-j4)
Vague Expression: assigning a very specific meaning to an opponent's vague term and then
attacking the interpretation (UR-d6)
Wrong Conclusion/Non-Sequitur: presenting evidence for one conclusion and then stating another
(IP-a2)
You Do It To/Two Wrongs Make A Right: suggesting a position is reasonable because your opponent acts in a similar
way (IR-h3)
The above list was compiled by a Paladin on a quest to act as a positive force
by sharing knowledge, empowering others, advocating kindness, and providing
encouragement today. Carpe Diem! (ver 9512)
4 CATEGORIES OF LOGICAL FALLACIES (10 GROUPS)
1) IRRELEVANT PREMISE [IP]
.....(a) Irrelevance/Unrelatedness
.....(b) Emotional Appeal
2) UNACCEPTABLE REASON [UR]
.....(c) Begging the Question
.....(d) Linguistic Confusion
.....(e) Unwarranted Assumption
3) INSUFFICIENT GROUNDS [IG]
.....(f) Causal
.....(g) Missing Evidence
4) INEFFECTIVE REBUTTAL [IR]
.....(h) Attacking the Person
.....(I) Counter Evidence
.....(j) Diversion
REFERENCES:
A Rulebook for Arguments = Anthony Weston (0-87220-156-2)
Attacking Faulty Reasoning = T. Edward Damer (0-534-21750-8)
Beyond Feelings-Guide to Critical Thinking =Vincent Ruggiero (1-55934-357-5)
de Bono's Thinking Course = Edward de Bono (0-8160-3178-9)
Fallacies and Pitfalls of Language = S. Morris Engel (0-486-28274-0)
Informal Logic -Handbook for Critical Argu = Douglas Walton (0-521-37925-3)
Logic And Contemporary Rhetoric = Howard Kahane (0-534-16896-5)
Reason & Argumentation = Richard Feldman (0-13-767229-2)
The Elements of Reasoning = David Conway (0-534-51672-6)
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